Publius Terentius Afer, or Terence, was a famous playwright of North African descent in the Roman Republic. He was born around 195 B.C. in Carthage and was initially brought to Rome as a slave. However, Terence’s abilities got him eventually freed, and he went on to write six separate plays.
Terence’s works were performed for the first time around 170 BC. Terence based his comedy on the New Comedy of Menander. New comedy was the forerunner of the comedy of manners (written by Molière, Congreve, Sheridan, Goldsmith, and Wilde).
Terence was initially brought to Rome as a slave by a Roman senator named Terentius Lucanus. Lucanus educated Terence as he served as a slave, and he eventually freed Terence due to his abilities as a playwright.
Terence is thought to have died at a young age, either at sea on his way back to Rome, or in Greece. His death is thought to have occurred around 159 BC.
Despite his early demise, Terence wrote six separate plays that have each survived to this day. The titles of Terence’s six separate plays are Andria, Hecyra, Heauton Timoroumenos, Eunuchus, Phormio, and Adelphi. The first, Andria, is thought to have been produced in 166 BC, while the last, Adelphi, is thought to have been produced in 160 BC.
Production notices for his plays provide approximate dates:
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· Andria - 166 BC
· Hecyra (The Mother-in-Law) - 165 BC
· Heauton Timoroumenos (The Self-Tormentor) - 163 BC
· Eunuchus (The Eunuch) - 161 BC
· Phormio - 161 BC
· Adelphi (The Brothers) - 160 BC.
Terence's plays were more refined than Plautus’, which led him to be slightly less popular at the time. There was also a fair share of controversy during Terence’s lifetime, as he was accused of contaminating the borrowed Greek material that he utilized in his plays. He was also accused of having had assistance in the creation of his plays. From The Encyclopedia Britannica:
“In a prologue to one of his plays, Terence] meets the charge of receiving assistance in the composition of his plays by claiming as a great honour the favour which he enjoyed with those who were the favorites of the Roman people. But the gossip, not discouraged by Terence, lived and throve; it crops up in Cicero and Quintilian, and the ascription of the plays to Scipio had the honour to be accepted by Montaigne and rejected by Diderot.”
The main sources of information regarding Terence are the prologues to his plays, the production notices, biographical material written centuries later by Suetonius, and commentary written by Aelius Donatus, a fourth-century grammarian.
Also Known As: Publius Terentius Afer
Examples: Terence wrote, 'According as the man is, so must you humour him.' Adelphoe. Act iii. Sc. 3, 77. (431.)
Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim wrote the first plays known to be written by a woman, and she is the first known European woman poet after Sappho. She was a canoness, poet, dramatist, and historian. Surmised from internal evidence of the writings that she was born about 930 or 935, and died after 973, perhaps as late as 1002
The German Dramatist is also known as Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim, Hrotsvitha von Gandersheim, Hrotsuit, Hrosvitha, Hrosvit, Hroswitha, Hrosvitha, Hrostsvit, Hrotsvithae, Roswita, Roswitha
Of Saxon background, Hrotsvitha became canoness of a convent in Gandersheim, near Göttingen. The convent was self-sufficient, known in its time for being a cultural and educational center. It had been established in the 9th century by Duke Liudolf and his wife and her mother as a 'free abbey,' not connected to the hierarchy of the church but to the local ruler. In 947, Otto I freed the abbey completely so that it was also not subject to a secular rule. The abbess in Hrotsvitha's time, Gerberga, was a niece of the Holy Roman Emperor, Otto I the Great. There is no evidence that Hrotsvitha was herself a royal relative, though some have guessed that she might have been.
Although Hrotsvitha is referred to as a nun, she was a canoness, meaning that she did not follow the vow of poverty, though she still took the vows of obedience and chastity that the nuns did.
Richarda (or Rikkarda) was responsible for the novices at Gerberga, and was a teacher of Hrotsvitha, of great intellect according to Hrotsvitha's writing. She later became an abbess.
At the convent, and encouraged by the abbess, Hrotsvitha wrote plays on Christian themes. She also wrote poems and prose. In her lives of the saints and in a life in verse of Emperor Otto I, Hrostvitha chronicled history and legend. She wrote in Latin as was usual for the time; most educated Europeans were conversant in Latin and it was the standard language for scholarly writing. Because of allusions in the writing to Ovid, Terence, Virgil, and Horace, we can conclude that the convent included a library with these works. Because of mention of events of the day, we know that she was writing sometime after 968.
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The plays and poems were shared only with others at the abbey, and possibly, with the abbess' connections, at the royal court. Hrotsvitha's plays were not rediscovered until 1500, and parts of her works are missing. They were first published in Latin in 1502, edited by Conrad Celtes, and in English in 1920.
From evidence within the work, Hrostvitha is credited with writing six plays, eight poems, a poem honoring Otto I and the history of the abbey community.
The poems are written to honor saints individually, including Agnes and the Virgin Mary as well as Basil, Dionysus, Gongolfus, Pelagius and Theophilus. Poems available are:
The plays are unlike morality plays that Europe favored a few centuries later, and there are few other plays extant from her between the Classical era and those. She was obviously familiar with the classical playwright Terence and uses some of his same forms, including satirical and even slapstick comedy, and may have intended to produce more 'chaste' entertainment than Terence's works for the cloistered women. Whether the plays were read aloud or actually performed, is unknown.
The plays include two long passages which seem out of place, one on mathematics and one on the cosmos.
The plays are known in translation by different titles:
The plots of her plays are either about the martyrdom of a Christian woman in pagan Rome or about a pious Christian man rescuing a fallen woman.
Her Panagyric Oddonum is a tribute in verse to Otto I, the abbess' relative. She also wrote a work about the abbey's founding, Primordia Coenobii Gandershemensis.